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--> [Submitted on 18 Jun 2026] Title:NepOOC-M: Bilingual Nepali-English Benchmark and Comparative Analysis of Multimodal Architectures for OOC Detection View a PDF of the paper titled NepOOC-M: Bilingual Nepali-English Benchmark and Comparative Analysis of Multimodal Architectures for OOC Detection, by Sanjeev Khatiwada View PDF HTML (experimental) Abstract:Out-of-context (OOC) misinformation pairs authentic images with misleading captions to construct false narratives without image manipulation, making detection a problem of multimodal alignment rather than image forensics. Despite the prevalence and consequences of OOC misinformation in Nepal, no public benchmark exists for Nepali. We introduce NepOOC, the first publicly available Nepali-dominant multilingual OOC benchmark, comprising 1,090 image-caption pairs (545 pristine, 545 OOC) annotated across five typologies (fabricated, miscaptioned, temporal mismatch, geographic mismatch, identity mismatch) with inter-annotator agreement kappa = 0.84. Systematic evaluation of five multimodal architectures alongside text-only and image-only baselines reveals that caption semantics appear sufficient for strong performance at the current dataset scale. A text-only mBERT model achieves 94.65+/-0.20% Macro-F1, statistically equivalent to the best multimodal system (ResNet-50+mBERT, 94.65+/-0.20%; McNemar median p = 1.000, 0/5 seeds significant at alpha = 0.05). Image-only models perform near chance (33-50%), while training-size scaling suggests that dataset expansion is a more direct path to progress than architectural sophistication or regional specialisation. Comments: 12 pages, 5 figures Subjects: Computation and Language (cs.CL); Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (cs.CV) ACM classes: I.2.7; I.2.10; I.5.4 Cite as: arXiv:2608.19212 [cs.CL] (or arXiv:2608.19212v1 [cs.CL] for this version) https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2608.19212 arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history From: Sanjeev Khatiwada [view email] [v1] Thu, 18 Jun 2026 12:04:49 UTC (6,454 KB) Full-text links: Access Paper: View a PDF of the paper titled NepOOC-M: Bilingual Nepali-English Benchmark and Comparative Analysis of Multimodal Architectures for OOC Detection, by Sanjeev Khatiwada View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source view license Current browse context: cs.CL new | recent | 2026-08 Change to browse by: cs cs.CV References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar Loading... Data provided by: Bibliographic Tools Bibliographic and Citation Tools Bibliographic Explorer Toggle Bibliographic Explorer (What is the Explorer?) Connected Papers Toggle Connected Papers (What is Connected Papers?) Litmaps Toggle Litmaps (What is Litmaps?) scite.ai Toggle scite Smart Citations (What are Smart Citations?) Code, Data, Media Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article alphaXiv Toggle alphaXiv (What is alphaXiv?) Links to Code Toggle CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers (What is CatalyzeX?) DagsHub Toggle DagsHub (What is DagsHub?) GotitPub Toggle Gotit.pub (What is GotitPub?) Huggingface Toggle Hugging Face (What is Huggingface?) ScienceCast Toggle ScienceCast (What is ScienceCast?) Demos Demos Replicate Toggle Replicate (What is Replicate?) Spaces Toggle Hugging Face Spaces (What is Spaces?) Spaces Toggle TXYZ.AI (What is TXYZ.AI?) Related Papers Recommenders and Search Tools Link to Influence Flower Influence Flower (What are Influence Flowers?) Core recommender toggle CORE Recommender (What is CORE?) Author Venue Institution Topic About arXivLabs arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs. Which authors of this paper are endorsers? | Disable MathJax (What is MathJax?)